Sophocles: A Guide to Selected Sources

Sarah Burges Watson Highlight sources in the text

Best-loved of the tragedians, Sophocles won at least twenty times in the Athenian dramatic festivals. He died in 406/5 BCE, aged around ninety. He wrote over a hundred and twenty plays (Suda Suda, ς 815 Adler); seven survive complete: Ajax, Electra, Women of Trachis, Antigone, Oedipus Tyrannus, Philoctetes (409 BCE), Oedipus at Colonus (401 BCE). The Vita Life of Sophocles transmitted with his plays is probably Hellenistic (see Bing 1993), but biographical stories circulated during Sophocles’ lifetime. Sources on Sophocles are collected by Radt (1977).

If classicism is the product of nostalgia for an idealized past (see Porter 2006), Sophocles represents its acme. His Life is perfectly harmonized with his poetry (cf. Graziosi 2006: 160-5). Considered through the lens of Sophocles’ mighty champion Aristotle, it might actually qualify as blessed (Nicomachean Ethics 1.10), apparently combining virtuous activity in accordance with reason (both contemplative and politically oriented) with good fortune—and no reversals. It certainly exemplifies the good timing said to be characteristic of his dramas (Vita Life of Sophocles 20-1). Raised in prosperity, Sophocles receives an aristocratic education in gymnastics and mousikê and sings the paean after the victory at Salamis (Vita Life of Sophocles 3). His career coincides with Athens’ heyday, ending before her catastrophic defeat by Sparta. He influences and is influenced by luminaries like Herodotus (see Dewald/Marincola 2006), whom he celebrates in an epigram Plutarch, Whether an old man should engage in public affairs 3, 785a. Taking what is best from Aeschylus, he brings tragedy to what Aristotle considers its natural fulfillment. Thereafter, Sophocles represents the golden mean between his rivals, Aeschylus and Euripides (see Hunter 2009).

Whilst Euripides subverts traditional religion and Aeschylus is accused of profaning the mysteries (see Guide to Aeschylus), Sophocles is ‘more pious than anyone else’ (Vita Life of Sophocles 12, 16; see Jouanna 2007: 73-90). He enjoys reciprocal divine favour and possesses vatic authority (Vita Life of Sophocles 12, 15, 17). When Heracles’ shrine is robbed, the hero reveals the thief’s identity to Sophocles in a dream (Vita Life of Sophocles 11, cf. Cicero Cicero, On Divination 1.25, 54), as he reveals Philoctetes’ destiny in Sophocles’ tragedy. The Vita Life of Sophocles (11) says that Sophocles was priest of a healer-hero, Halon. Some suspect confusion with Amynus, attested in inscriptions IG II/III (2nd edition) 1252
IG II/III (2nd edition) 1253 with Asclepius and ‘Dexion’—Sophocles’ cult-name in a Byzantine lexicon Etymologicum Magnum 256.6 ‘Dexion’. Supposedly derived from his ‘reception’ (dexis) of Asclepius (cf. Plutarch Plutarch, Life of Numa 4.8, 62c
Plutarch, That Epicurus actually makes a pleasant life impossible 22, 1103 a, Lefkowitz 2012, Connolly 1998), the name may pun on his poetic dexterity Phrynichus Muses, fr. 32 Kassel-Austin = T 105 Radt
Athenaeus, Sophists at Dinner 13, 603e. A Sophoclean paean to Asclepius (Page, PMG 737) was still performed in Athens in Philostratus’ Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 3.17 day.

The tragic poet dies a Dionysian death (Vita Life of Sophocles 14) by choking on an unripe grape during the Dionysian festival Anthesteria; or from joy at the Antigone’s victory (cf. Diodorus Diodorus of Sicily, The Library of History 13.103.4); or because he ran out of breath whilst reciting a long passage (an anecdote which may have arisen in a didactic context). Dionysus prescribes burial honours for ‘the new Siren’ Life of Sophocles (ch. 15)
Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.21.1. Pausanias understands the title as a reference to the seductiveness of (his) poetry. Sophocles is made a hero (Vita Life of Sophocles 17), perhaps in imitation of his (posthumous) Oedipus at Colonus—Sophocles’ own deme. (See Lefkowitz 2012: 84 and Currie 2012, with further bibliography). His canon-/hero-ization is already underway in 405 BCE in Phrynichus’ Muses Phrynichus Muses, fr. 32 Kassel-Austin (Harvey 2000) and Aristophanes’ Frogs Aristophanes, Frogs 76-82
Aristophanes, Frogs 786-794
Aristophanes, Frogs 1515-1519. In the latter, Sophocles floats peacefully above his quarrelsome rivals, surrendering life and the infernal Chair of Tragedy as graciously as he surrenders the sexual pleasures of his youth in Plato Plato, Republic 329 b.

The charm (charis) of Sophocles personality matches the charis of his poetry (Vita Life of Sophocles 7). His Life exemplifies his declaration (in Aristotle’s Poetics Aristotle, Poetics 25, 1460b32
Aristotle, Poetics 3, 1448a25) that he (like Homer), depicted men as they should be (the proper mode for tragedy); Euripides as they are. Aristophanes’ flattering portrait may reflect Sophocles’ tribute to Euripides Life of Euripides 2 (1, 13, 11 Schwartz), who died in the same year. The tragedian seems never to have missed an opportunity to display his excellence. He is the antitype of the antisocial Euripides (see Guide to Euripides, Davidson 2012). Athenaeus Athenaeus, Sophists at Dinner 13, 603e constructs their sexualities as opposite: Euripides is a woman-lover; Sophocles likes boys. Elsewhere Plato, Republic 329 b
Plutarch Life of Pericles 8.8
Athenaeus, Sophists at Dinner 13, 592 A, however, Sophocles pursues women even in old age (pace Plato). He falls for a courtesan and leaves her his property Life of Sophocles
Athenaeus, Sophists at Dinner 13, 592 A
Scholion to Aristophanes’ Frogs 78. The Vita says that his son/s charged him with dementia and that Sophocles was acquitted after reading from the OC; a story found in other sources Life of Sophocles (ch. 13)
Scholion to Aristophanes’ Frogs 78
Cicero, Cato Maior 22.

Anecdotes involving (the conspicuously un-erotic) Aeschylus are restricted to poetics. Sophocles Ath. 10. 428f
Plut. fr. 130 Sandbach comments in Socratic fashion on the older poet’s instinctive creativity (see Guide to Aeschylus) and, in Plutarch Plutarch, How a young man may become aware of his progress in virtue 7, 79B, charts his relationship to Aeschylus in teleological terms (see Pelling 2007). Aeschylus is said to have left Athens in indignation Life of Aeschylus (ch. 8)
Plut. Cim. 8, 483e when defeated by Sophocles’ first production.

While his rivals’ biographies end in exile, Sophocles is ‘most Athens-loving’ (Vita Life of Sophocles 10; see Hanink 2010). Indeed, after serving as treasurer Inscriptiones Graecae I (3rd edition) 269.36 in 443/2, he held the highest political office (general) Scholion to Aristides p. 485, 28 Dindorf
Hypothesis to Sophocles Antigone (1.69.17 Dain)
Plutarch, Life of Nicias 15.2, 533b at least once—with Pericles—during the Samian revolt of 441/0 BCE. According to the Antigone’s hypothesis Hypothesis to Sophocles Antigone (1.69.17 Dain), Sophocles was elected because of the play’s popularity (the dating conflicts with Vita Life of Sophocles 14). In an anecdote ascribed to Ion of Chios Athenaeus, Sophists at Dinner 13, 603e, Sophocles playfully challenges Pericles’ observation that he is a better poet than general by ensnaring a slave-boy at a symposium (see Ford 2002: 191-3). This follows a virtuosic erotic/poetic display which, when challenged by a pedantic symposiast, becomes another demonstration of ‘how men should be’. Dexterity in mousikê is crucial for elite social competition, but Ion judges Sophocles politically unremarkable. In the Frogs, where questions about poetry’s educational status are central, Sophocles’ absence from the fray exonerates Aristophanes from exploring how good the poet’s advice to the people actually was, at least when he left the theater. This subject was perhaps best avoided, since a committee on which Sophocles served had established a (despotic) oligarchic regime in 411 BCE. As Aristotle Aristotle, The Art of Rhetoric 3.18, 1419a25
Aristotle, The Art of Rhetoric 1.14, 1374b34
Aristotle, The Art of Rhetoric 3.15, 1416a13 attests, Sophocles was questioned about his role by his fellow-counsellor Peisander, probably during the latter’s prosecution for a suicide, for which Sophocles proposed the death penalty (see Jameson 1971).

Aristophanes said that Sophocles’ mouth (like Pindar’s elsewhere Guide to Pindar) was smeared with honey (Vita Life of Sophocles 22). In the Vita Life of Sophocles (20), his honey/charis is gathered from what is sweetest in his forebears, above all Homer—the ultimate classic. He is dubbed philhomeros by the Homerist Eustathius and ‘the tragic Homer’ by the Academician Polemon Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers 4.20 (see Schein 2012). These judgments echo Aristotle. Aeschylus Athenaeus, Sophists at Dinner 1, 20e allegedly described his own tragedies as slices from Homer’s banquet; the Vita Life of Sophocles (20) apparently endorses the judgment that ‘only Sophocles was a student of Homer’.

Sophocles is said to have performed onstage twice in Homeric roles. According to Athenaeus Athenaeus, Sophists at Dinner 1, 20e, he played a memorable ball-game as Nausicaa. His other character—Thamyras—was said to have competed with the Muses, demanding to sleep with all of them, if victorious. His defeat was punished with blindness (see Wilson 2009: 59-79). We do not know how much of this Sophoclean. In one fragment (245 Radt with Wilson 2009: 67-70), Thamyras may have spoken about the Assembly under the compulsion of mousikê—an intriguing parallel with Sophocles’ political activities. The statement (Vita Life of Sophocles 4) that Sophocles abandoned acting because his voice was weak may echo Thamyras’ loss of song. It may also reflect the play’s interests in the professionalization of mousikê—formerly the aristocrat’s preserve (see Wilson 2004, 2009: 70-9). From the perspective of poetics, Sophocles’ alignment with Thamyras is remarkable. In the Iliad, he is a negative antitype of Homer, whose punishment represents the defeat of a rival epic tradition. Whatever the resonances of this Homeric story in Sophocles’ biography, it has a comparable erotic/musical counterpart in the Siren placed on his tomb Life of Sophocles (ch. 15)
Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.21.1.

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